The earliest inhabitants - We know very little about the earliest inhabitants of Palermo and of Sicily in general. Maybe the earliest human groups who took possession of that territory were nomadic peoples who lived in the late Palaeolithic, and whose parietal graffiti remain in the caves of Santa Rosalia, of San Ciro, of Niscemi and in those of Addaura on Mount Pellegrino. Prehistoric necropolis excavated at the foot of the mountains surrounding the city should instead date back to the Neolithic period and the Copper age. Nevertheless, the most certain finds date back to the Bronze age, documented by the discoveries found in the caves of Monreale, and in other caves on Mount Pellegrino; these discoveries date nearly back to the 23rd century BC. During this period the Sicani settled there, and Sicily was named Sicania from them. The Sicani were Mediterranean farmers and breeders coming from the far Iberian peninsula and settling down in the area of Valdesi, under Mount Pellegrino and also at Carini, in the province of Palermo, where the remains of an ancient urban centre have been found. Afterwards, the Siculi, coming from Lazio, and the Elimi, an Oriental people from Turkey, settled down in the Palermo area. The Sicani, the Siculi and the Elimi were addicted to work and to the cult for divinity, and they have lived for a long time in peace, but soon trade reasons forced them to come up against other Mediterranean people coming to the Palermitan area, such as, first of all, the Phoenicians.

The Phoenicians - 9th century BC - The Phoenicians were very good seamen and tradesmen. After having founded Cartagine in Northern Africa, they came to Sicily, where they settled down in places having a strategic importance, such as "Ziz" (the present Palermo), which became, thanks to its wide harbour, their main base in order to impose their dominion over the Tyrrhenian sea. The Phoenicians invented the alphabet and built the earliest city's enclosure walls and other defensive works protecting the port. Yet, the Phoenicians, who, however, never managed to subdue local people, soon were forced to face new colonists, the Greeks.

The Romans - 3rd century BC - After having forced the Carthaginians to leave the island, the Romans took possession of Sicily, Palermo became a senatorial colony and Roman coins were minted. It is due to the Romans the development of the road system, the construction of an important aqueduct and of important amphitheatres and the earliest exploitations of sulphur; yet, for almost the whole Sicily, during the Roman dominion there was a period of decay, and only agriculture had a good development. It was also a period of discontent because of the heavy taxes imposed over the people and of the abuses of many Governors. However, the slave revolts against the rich patrician families did not involve Palermo, where in the meanwhile a rich trade and a prosper handicraft developed, so that the Romans conferred the title of libera atque immunis upon the city and were used to exalt its natural beauties.

During the Roman empire, in the 1st century AD, Palermo began to be converted to Christianity and S. Mamiliano was declared the first city's bishop. Roman emperors allowed the construction of the first cathedral and changed from tolerance to the adoption of Christianity, and consequently they condemned paganism. With the fall of the Roman empire, Sicily underwent a period of decay, and it was due to the barbarian invasions.

The Vandals and the Goths -5th and 6th century BC - Towards 400 AD, the Vandal Genserico came to Palermo from Africa and it was the beginning of a painful domination characterised by persecutions and raids, whom the Palermitan people managed bravely to resist. In 475 Teodorico, the king of the Goths, took control of the city, and was more tolerance towards Catholic Latin Palermitans. Churches and catacombs were built, and in their crypts bishops and the earliest martyrs were buried. But the traces of a barbarian domination were soon eliminated by the Byzantine domination.

The Byzantine - 6th-9th century AD - after the attempt by Giustiniano, the Emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire, the Byzantine army, led by Belisario, conquered Palermo in 534 AD. During the Byzantine dominion, lasted for almost three centuries, the city underwent a period of relative prosperity, that was yet troubled by the religious struggle between the Christians and the Pagans. In order to avoid a religious schism, Gregorio Magno allowed the construction of Latin churches, Greek rite churches and Benedictine monasteries faithful to the Catholic church, and at the beginning of 7th century the Cathedral was built. Palermo had a good economic growth and its population increased greatly. But in the long run dissatisfaction got the Sicilians to rebellion in order to create an independent government.

The Arabs - 831 - 1072 - After having reached the political unification of the Arabian tribes, Mahomet, the founder of Islam, had proclaimed the holy war, in the name of Allah, against all the disbelieving people. So the Arabs, driven by their religious fanaticism, did not hesitate to cause bloody struggles all over the Mediterranean sea, and, after having invaded Spain and France, they came even to Sicily and conquered Palermo, after having besieged it for one year. Since then to 1060, Sicily had lived a period of civilisation and prosperity never seen before and even unknown to many other Italian regions. The Arabs were clever farmers, and turned uncultivated fields into oasis of fertility; they created gardens and introduced new cultivation: citrus fruit, mulberries, sugar canes, cotton, date-palm and prickly pear. New methods of irrigation and canalisation changed the territory that, flourished even in stock-raising and trade, assumed a nearly fairly aspect.

Arts and literature flourished again too, thanks to the presence of philosophers, scientists, poets and artists. Palermo was really loved by the Arabs, who made it beautiful with wonderful monuments, making this city one of the greatest attractions for travellers and tradesmen of every part of the world, and many times they celebrated it in their hymns. In 948 Palermo became the capital of Sicily, took the name of Balarmu and in this bright period reached 350.000 inhabitants. It became an emirate, while many Christian churches, such as the Cathedral itself, were turned into Muslim temples, reaching a total number of 500 mosques. Nevertheless, there was tolerance between the Palermitan and the Arabs, but there was never fusion; the Arab rulers imposed heavy taxes on those who decided to profess different religion from Islam, but Palermitan people kept themselves independent not only in their faith, but even in their traditions, customs and ideas; spoken languages were three: Greek, Latin and Arabic. In the same place as the present quarter of the Kalsa (Halisah, the elect), the Arabs took their residence and the whole city was divided into quarters. Sicily's riches and its good geographic position attracted the Normans who conquered Palermo in 1072, after having besieged it for five months, so the Arabian domination in Sicily ended.

The Normans - 1072 - 1198 - The Normans, called "the northern men", coming from French Normandy, were mercenaries and adventures, and they were usually addicted to wars and raids. Among them, there were two brothers, Roberto "il Guiscardo" (the shrewd) and Ruggiero, the younger brother, who were allowed by Pope Niccolò II to take control of all Southern Italy for him. So Roberto and Ruggiero d'Altavilla came over the Straits of Messina. But, when they arrived in Sicily, they ignored the agree with the Pope and they decided to take control of the island for themselves. The Saracens, who were already at variance among one another, were hardly attacked and Roberto il Guiscardo became the Governor of Palermo and ruled wisely and with tolerance even with the former rulers. The Cathedral and many other churches came back to the Christian faith and new churches were built. In 1085, after a little more than ten years, Roberto died, and left his government to his brother Ruggiero who, after having defeating the Saracens definitely, enlarged the Norman power all over the island. Nevertheless, the Muslims kept on taking a very important role at the Norman court, holding also administrative offices and contributing to trade and arts. At his death, Count Ruggiero I was buried in the Cathedral of Palermo and Government went to his wife, Countess Adelasia, and she had ruled Sicily for ten years, until her son Ruggiero II came of age and was proclaimed the king of Sicily, in 1130. During his reign lasted for 24 years, Ruggiero II reorganised the bureaucratic and administrative system of the city, distributing lands to his own followers, creating in this way a rich aristocracy of feudatories who owed their king full obedience. He declared that God himself gave him power, independently of the Pope's consent, and he decreed a code of acts imbuing with the Roman law, according which he demanded absolute obedience from both laymen and ecclesiastics. His feudatories constituted the Parliament which had only a consultative value and was an expression of the king's power. The Court of Ruggiero II became the centre of art and science and it is due to him the construction of the church of the Martorana, the church of S. Giovanni degli Eremiti and the marvellous Cappella Palatina in the Norman Royal Palace, where writers, artists and men of science were used to meet. Ruggiero's son, Guglielmo I "il malo" (the bad one), who succeeded him to the throne, reigned from 1154 to 1166. The barons, becoming economically and socially strong, badly tolerating the restrictions imposed on their feudal privileges, driven by their racial intolerance against the Saracens, tried to achieve political power. So a revolt broke out, leaded by Matteo Bonello, during which many Arabian shops and goods were plundered and spoiled and the king himself was captured. But after a few days, the king was set free by the people, took his power back and the Saracens took cruel vengeance against Matteo Bonello and his followers. When he was only 46 years old, Guglielmo I died, and the power went to Queen Margherita, waiting for his young son, Guglielmo II, to come of age in order to be crowned king. Guglielmo II was called "il buono" (the good one), probably because he proved more tolerant than his father towards the nobles, decreasing state taxes. Even going on the policy of Christianisation, Guglielmo II lived sumptuously and elegantly just like an Oriental sovereign. During this period the marvellous Cathedral of Monreale was built, and this can be considered a typical model of refined art in which oriental and western style blend wonderfully. In the same period the Cuba was built, the Zisa was terminated and the king rebuilt the Cathedral of Palermo. At Guglielmo's death, when he was 36 years old, the flourishing season of the Norman reign was over.

After the short-lived reign of Tancredi d'Altavilla, Palermo went to Enrico VI of Germany who, in the meantime, had married Costanza, the last descendant of king Ruggiero II. Having taken possession of the rich Norman treasures, Enrico Hohenstaufen left the island bringing this rich spoil with him. Having died suddenly, he left the reign to his son Federico who, coming of age, was proclaimed the Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. Thanks to Federico II, Palermo flourished again in every field, reaching prosperity and splendour: he increased agriculture and breeding and promulgated new laws confirming the principle of the emperor's authority even over the Ecclesiastics; he promoted maths, astronomy and, above all, literary studies. At his court, for the first time, the Sicilian dialect became the official language instead of Greek, Arabic and Latin, and he also founded the Sicilian Poetical School.

The Angevins - At his death, Federico II left the reign of Sicily to his younger son Enrico who, died prematurely, was succeeded by his illegitimate brother Manfredi. But Swabian reign came to an end when Charles of Angiò, French king Luis IX's brother, came to the island. He killed Manfredi during a battle on the 26th February 1266 at Benevento and took control of the reign. So for Sicily it was the beginning of a period of oppression during which local traditions were trampled on, heavy taxes were imposed and every kind of restriction was laid on the Palermitan people, who soon hated his new rulers, regretting Swabian sovereigns. Increasing discontent led to a popular revolt which stretched quickly from Palermo to the rest of Sicily. The event getting the so called Sicilian Vespers Revolt to break out against the French happened on the 31st March 1282 in the church of Santo Spirito, behind the cemetery of St. Orsola in Palermo, just when Vespers was sung. According what is told, the riot was caused by an insult brought by a French soldier to a Palermitan woman. During the revolt, hundreds of French people were killed and the Palermitans proclaimed their city an independent republic, under the Church's protection. Other Sicilian cities proclaimed themselves independent, but Pope Martin IV denied his protection to the Sicilians, and therefore they turned to Pietro di Aragona, Costanza's husband, Manfredi's daughter.

Pietro III di Aragona declared war to Carlo d'Angiò, created the Regnum Siciliae and Sicily was banished by the Church for one century. But the Sicilians were disappointed because the Aragoneses just benefited by their victories, while the people went on furnishing food, arms and men to the Spanish feud. When Pietro III died, he was succeeded by his son Giacomo, who proclaimed himself king of Aragon and Sicily. In 1296 his younger brother Federico III, who was already the viceroy of Palermo, opposed him and, being backed by the Sicilian noblemen, got himself proclaimed the king of Trinacria (of Sicily). A peace treaty was stipulated with the Angevins, according which Federico III stated that after his death the island would go back to the French. But the noblemen prevented him from keeping this promise and became the leading force in many Sicilian cities. Federico IV succeeded Federico III, and, after his death, his daughter Mary went under the protection of a very powerful family, the Alagona family. In Palermo, power was in the hands of one the most powerful Norman families, the Chiaramonte. Without their permission, not even the sovereigns themselves could come to the city. In Palermo, the Chiaramonte built Palazzo Steri, which became the palace of the power Alagona and Chiaramonte families were opposed to Mary's marriage with Martino I of Aragona, as they were afraid that Sicily came back again under Spanish power. This opposition persuaded Spain to react by besieging Palermo, in 1392, and compelling the Chiaramonte to surrender.

The Spanish dominion (1410-1713) - In this way, under Alfonso of Aragona, Sicily became just a Spanish province and it was exploited just according the essential Spanish aims. After having conquered even Naples's reign, he declared himself king of two Sicilies, and he addicted himself to the construction of palaces, churches and houses. But the flourishing of public works contrasted the economic decay of the island. Palermo suffered such a hard impoverishment that the following development of the city was heavily conditioned. During the Spanish Government, sixty-eight viceroys succeeded one another, in order to protect the privileges of the Spanish crown, keeping the balance between the king and the Sicilian Barons. The viceroys appointed the President of the three Parliament Chambers: the Chamber of the very powerful clergy, the Chamber of the Barons and the Royal Chamber. These three main authorities put more and more down the Sicilian People with taxes, tributes and very bad work distribution, while corruption was spreading among officials, judges and the police. Just during the Spanish dominion, there is the birth of the organised underworld, from which Mafia was originated. Lands, which were not very productive because of the lack of water, were deserted more and more, and the whole island, once the European granary, began suffering periodical and terrible famines. But the full submission of Sicily and above all of Palermo happened when the Spanish sent the Inquisitors to the island. The Holy Inquisition settled at Palazzo Steri, that was once a Norman's palace, where the Court of the Holy Office or of the Inquisition was instituted, and condemned to death hundreds and hundreds of supposed heretics and of sure Spanish enemies. Prisons were built on the first floor of the Palace, and torture rooms were built on the ground floor (the Court was suppressed in 1782 and today this Palace is the seat of the Rectorship of Palermo university has taken its place). Meanwhile, the Spanish tried to get the people to forget desperation and starvation by organising feasts, processions and sumptuous parties. The situation got worse because of the spreading of brigandage, and of the barbaric raids which Carlo V, an Austrian Asburgian emperor, faced and defeated, and so in 1535 he could enter Palermo, coming to the city across the Sun Gate, where the enormous figures of the defeated Barbaric were built, and called Porta Nuova after him. But the emperor disappointed Palermitan hopes and, after his death, first Filippo II and then Filippo III took Palermo and the whole Sicily in a very serious economic situation.

Palermo in the 18th century - With the coming of Vittorio Amedeo II the Palermitans expected to be set definitely free from the Spanish. But the harsh politics of their new sovereign, his disputes against the Church and his reforms stirred up great discontent. Soon the Spanish benefited by this situation, trying to conquer the island again, but they caused the intervention of the Austrians, who managed to take Sicily back again under the power of Carlo VI, after one year of hard fighting. But at least Austrian Government, no less strict than the former, tried to improve industries and trade. In 1734 a new Spanish expedition succeeded in occupying the island, that was joined to the reign of Naples under the power of Carlo III di Borbone. Thanks to Carlo III di Borbone the commercial and economic system of the city was regulated; he tried to win poverty by creating public works; a census of the population was taken and the knowledge of the Italian language was promoted. The Palermitan noblemen began organising frequent parties where every pleasure and licentiousness was permitted. The sumptuous nobiliary villas not only in Palermo but even at Bagheria, Trabia and Carini date back to this period. But the luxury, the excess and the worldly pleasures of the noblemen, were in contrast with the poverty of the people, towards whom famines and epidemics were raging. In 1759 Carlo III was succeeded by Ferdinando IV, who tried to solve several problems, helped by the viceroy Caracciolo. On 27th July 1783 Caracciolo took part to the destruction of the archives of the Holy Inquisition: during a stake lasted for over twenty-four years, documents, instruments of torture and all that could remind that vile and cruel mean of power was burned. In the same year, the viceroy granted advantageous and more liberal reforms and a desire of renewal pervaded the last years of the Bourbon Government.

Palermo in the 19th century - At the beginning of the 19th century, in Palermo there was real a renaissance: astronomers, physicists, sculptors, architects, famous scholars increased the cultural and artistic importance of the city, coherently with the revival of ideas which had spread all over Europe, since the French revolution to the Napoleonic wars. In 1812 Italian Constitution and in the following year the first Parliament were passed. In 1815 the Congress of Vienna caused the end of the constitutional freedom of Sicily: the Parliament was dissolved by the king Ferdinand Bourbon who joined Naples and Sicily reign creating the reign of two Sicilies on the 8th December 1816. The lack of autonomy and the interference of the Neapolitans about administrative matters, provoked a series of riots in Sicily between 1820 and 1821: Palermo was shelled and many noblemen lost their houses and the Austrian intervention let the power restore to the Bourbons. In January of 1848 in Palermo a new popular rebellion, led by the patriot Giuseppe La Masa, broke out, and many aristocratic and moderate bourgeois people took part to it. The riot succeeded in expelling the Bourbons from the island and a provisional government headed by Ruggero VII was instituted. The crown was offered to Alberto Amedeo, the duke of Genoa, who declined it, while Ferdinand Bourbon was organising himself in order to conquer the island again. In February of 1848 the Bourbons sovereign presented an ultimatum to the Sicilians who reacted so that they provoked a violent reaction of the Bourbons, who subjected Palermo again on the 15th May 1848. But the discontent of the Sicilian people and their restlessness led to a new opposition to the Bourbon government. On the 4th April 1860 a popular insurrection broke out and it was the beginning of a new series of riots, encouraged by the news of Garibaldi's arrival. On 11th May 1860 Garibaldi and his Thousand Soldiers landed at Marsala and peasants and workers joined him enthusiastically. He declared himself the dictator of the island and he asserted that he took power in the name of Vittorio Emanuele II, the king of Piedmont. With the help and the support of several volunteers, Garibaldi began an exhausting war against the Bourbons who were defeated first at Calatafimi on the 15th May and later on at Marsala, so Garibaldi arrived in Palermo on the 27th May 1860. The social reforms which Garibaldi carried out in Sicily turned to the advantage of the farmers and all those who had helped him in his exploit, and in October the Sicilians voted for the unification of Italy under the kingdom of Savoy. But both the unification of Italy and the arrival of the Piedmontese were soon a bitter disappointment: a great number of new taxes, the liability to military service, the rise of the prices of foodstuff let unemployment and brigandage spread. Moreover, the annexation of Sicily to the North had caused the ruin of Sicilian industries unable to compete with the Northern ones. For these reasons there was a new riot in Palermo, and the island, revolted against the Piedmontese. The rebellion was put bloodily down and the city went on living in poverty. Just in this historical period it can be particularly observed the difference between the economically advanced and civilised North and the backward South, where unemployment and illiteracy were increasing. After 1866, many inquiries tried for the first time to face the serious problem of Southern Italy, and in this way the so called Southern question originated.

The Cathedral

La capella Palatina

Teatro Massimo