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4.1 — COMPOUND SENTENCES

In Parts 1 and 2 the focus was on clauses, i.e. the assembling of core elements (subject, predicate, object) and complements. Telling which is what was shown to be a matter of logic and, again, logic is one and the same in all languages.

In Part 3, words and phrases found in the core and complements were reviewed. There, the focus shifted from logic to (mostly English) grammar.

Logic is making a comeback in this last 4^th Part, which analyses how two or more clauses cluster into a sentence.

Our précis on language stops here, short of investigating how sentences are organised within a wider architecture (an essay, speech, scientific article etc.). Such study is presented in texts on rhetoric, oratory, journalism, creative writing, marketing, or yet other communication subjects catering to the needs of various types of learners.

When a sentence consists of one clause only, it is called simple sentence.

But two or more clauses may also coalesce into a sentence. At the end of Part 1, an example was given of a two-clause one:

• The tree is large and a stream flows.
      [clause 1 + "and" (a conjunction) + clause 2.]

• The tree is large.
• A stream flows.

• The air was blue and terse. Tree branches quavered in the gentle wind. High above, snow glittered on mountain tops. …
  Remark the conjunction "and" in the first sentence. It does not connect two clauses but two adjectives ("blue", "terse"), both of which belong to a TO BE + QUALIFIER(S) predicate: "was blue and terse ".

• The air was blue and terse.
• Tree branches quavered in the gentle wind.
• High above, snow glittered on mountain tops.

Compound sentences don't really tell us much more than we already know from considering simple sentences in Parts 1 to 3. A compound sentence is a mere wrapping filled with two or more simple sentences.

4.2 — COMPLEX SENTENCES

A far more interesting sentence model is the complex one.

Before discussing it, let us consider two more complements which may be found in clauses.

In the sentence:

• "In case of agreement, we may sign a deal right away"

In the sentence:

• "In spite of your efforts, we are still a long way off the mark"

4.2a — The Star-shaped Complex Sentence

In adding information to the clause core, complements meet severe constraints because clauses cannot be expanded beyond measure.

What if we want to know more about the condition and the concession stated in the two examples above: what is it to be agreed upon, what efforts were made?

Answers can come via a string of one-clause sentences or by a long compound sentence.

• Mr. X and Mr. Y discuss a deal.
• The deal concerns renting an apartment.
• The landlord, Mr. X⁽¹⁾, asks a monthly rent of $925.00.

  [To turn this string of simple sentences into a compound sentence:

  • just link them with conjunctions ("and", ...)
  • or insert semicolons (;) between them
  • or make use of relative pronouns (which, that, who ...):
    "Mr. X and Mr. Y discuss a deal that concerns renting an apartment, for which the landlord, Mr. X, asks a monthly rent of $925.00."]

A preferable alternative is the complex sentence, with:

• one main clause supporting the whole sentence structure
• and one or more subordinate clauses depending on the main.

Two examples of complex sentences are:

1. If you agree to pay $925.00 per month for this apartment, we may sign the deal right away.
2. Although I recognise that you made all possible efforts — as in fact you did find a trustworthy borrower, you did arrange the meeting at a time suitable to all parties — nevertheless we are still way off the mark because some of the people interested in this venture hesitate to commit themselves.

The main clause of Example 1. is

• We may sign the deal right away

• We are still way off the mark.

(In some books the "main" clause is called "principal", or "supporting" clause instead; "subordinate" clauses may be called "dependent" or "secondary".)

Example 1. has one subordinate:

• If you agree to pay $925.00 per month for this apartment"

1. [Although] I recognise that you made all possible efforts
2. You found a trustworthy borrower
3. You arranged the meeting at a time suitable to all parties
4. [Because] some of those interested in this venture hesitate about their commitment

Likewise, in Example 2. subordinate #1 states a concession and we identify it as a "concessional subordinate".

Subordinate #4 is reminiscent of a causal complement and may be called a "causal subordinate".⁽²⁾

Subordinates #2 and #3 just display a listing of the efforts mentioned in subordinate #1. They do not play a significant logical role, because all they do is stating more explicitly the information given in clause #1. A possible label for them is "wedged-in subordinates".

The image below sums up the structure of the complex sentence we are discussing by means of a star-shaped* graph:

Now that we know what a "complex sentence" is, we can account for the strange complement examples met in #2.1j.

The sketchy explanation which was given there of
• He left, not to bother further.
can now be reworded as:
"He left" is a main clause; "not to bother further" is a purpose subordinate.

A difficulty in the design of complex sentences is harmonising verbal tenses among subordinates and in relation to the verb tense of the main.

In this matter, "rules of syntax" apply which differ from language to language. Look at the tenses of main and subordinate in the example which follows:

• If she has arrived at the station, she will be here soon.

4.2b — The Nested Complex Sentence (a Blown-up Clause)

Complex sentence may also display a nested hierarchy of clauses within clauses instead of the star-shaped seen before. To get the idea, look at this image:

• Both utterances have an identical structure, but the second takes into account that the listener / reader is not acquainted with Robert and noun "Robert" is replaced with a sub-clause explaining who he is ("The man who lives next door").
• The result is a clause containing a sub-clause.

Any segment of a basic clause may be blown up into a sub-clause.

For example, changing the first utterance into:
  Robert shall come after the sun sets down.
The time complement (adverb "tonight") has been replaced by the sub-clause "after the sun sets down".

The nested type fits the complex sentence model, which was defined as a system of hierarchically co-ordinated clauses.
In the nested design, like in the star-shaped one, there is no mere assembling of independent clauses found in the compound sentence. Let us thus discriminate between:
1. a star-shaped complex sentence where the main supports subordinates which are external to it
2. and a nested one where the main encompasses subordinates nested in it.⁽³⁾.

• Donald's being able to graduate with such high marks surprised his parents.

• Donald was able to graduate with high marks

Can we find sub-clauses nested at "object" level as well? We do:

• I heard that Donald graduated with high marks.

The object ("something" = "Donald graduated with high marks") is not a noun bundle. It is a clause, because it complies with clause requirements, having:

• a subject ("Donald")
• a predicate ("graduated")
• and a manner complement ("with high marks").

What do we make of the word "that" (in "I heard that")?
Here, it cannot be a locator: it can only be a conjunction connecting the main body of the complex sentence to the object clause.

Also complements may be blown up into sub-clauses within a wider clause pattern. Consider:

• She is annoyed over such nuisance.

If we wish to be more specific about the kind of nuisance she is enduring, the complement "over such a nuisance" swells into a sub-clause (the underlined segment):

• She is annoyed over having to listen to her brother's complaints every day or so.

In this nested complex sentence we identify:

1. an overall background clause (which we may consider to be the "main clause"):
   She 's annoyed over something.

   and, in it, we find the sub-clause:

2. She must listen to her brother's complaints every day or so.

1. The sentence contains one clause only. »» It is a SIMPLE SENTENCE.
   Examples:
   • The river has dried out.
   • Mary slipped on a banana skin.
   • We are colleagues.
   • They shall soon buy a new house.
2. The sentence contains two or more clauses. Two cases are possible:
   1. Each clause is self-standing, does not depend on the remaining clauses. The sentence is merely a string of unrelated clauses. »» It is a COMPOUND SENTENCE.
      Examples:
      • Mary slipped and hurt herself.
      • They met today for the first time, we instead have been colleagues at work for a long time.
      • They shall soon buy a house and will have to renovate it due to its poor condition.
      Please note:

      Although we understand that Mary's accident causes her being hurt, no evidence for such chain of effects is given. For hierarchical connection to obtain, terms such as "because ...", "due to ..." must be added. Formally, sentences above are compound ones, not complex.

   2. The clauses inisde the sentence are mutually dependent. »» It is a COMPLEX SENTENCE.

      Complex sentences come in two varieties:

      1. One clause - called main - is the pivot on which all other clauses - called subordinates - hinge. »» It is a STAR-SHAPED COMPLEX SENTENCE.
         Examples:
         • Since Mary slipped and hurt herself, she has been in a depression.
         • Although we met today for the first time, we have both worked for the same company since 2002.
         • They saved for years in order to buy a larger house.
      2. We have a broad scheme, with subject, predicate, object when needed, and possibly also complements. Inside the scheme, one or more elements are blown up into sub-sentences. »» It is a NESTED COMPLEX SENTENCE.
         Examples:
         • The river which dried out is actually little more than a creek.
           Scheme outline
             Something is not very big.
             [Exploded element: subject "something"]
         • I know the girl who slipped on a banana skin.
           Scheme outline
             Somebody knows somebody.
             [Object "somebody" has expanded into a sub-clause]
         • Today I met that colleague of mine who joined the company in 2002.
           Scheme outline
             Somebody met somebody.
             [Object "somebody" has expanded into a sub-clause]
         • Someone bought the house which has been on sale since September.
           Scheme outline
             Someone bought something.
             [Object "something" has expanded into a sub-clause]

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